Haiti

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Independent republic, West Indies occupying the W third of the island of Hispaniola. The republic is bounded on the N by the Atlantic Ocean, on the E by the Dominican Republic, on the S by the Caribbean Sea, and on the W by the Windward Passage, which separates it from Cuba. The area of Haiti is 27,750 sq km (10,714 sq mi). See also World Almanac: Nations of the World - Haiti.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Haiti consists of two peninsulas, which are separated by the Golfe de la Gonâve. Among the offshore islands, Gonâve is the largest. About two-thirds of the country is mountainous. Interspersed among the mountains are valleys, most of which are small. Pic La Selle, the highest peak, rises to an altitude of 2680 m (8793 ft) above sea level. The coasts are elevated, for the most part, and greatly indented, forming many natural harbors. The numerous rivers--most of which are short, swift, and unnavigable--have their sources in the mountains. The largest river, the Artibonite, is navigable for part of its length. The country also has several large lakes.

Climate

Haiti has a tropical climate. The temperature along the coasts averages 26.7° C (80° F), with little variation from winter to summer. The mountains are considerably cooler. Rainy seasons occur from April to June and October to November. The average annual rainfall is 1346 mm (53 in) at Port-au-Prince, but only 508 mm (20 in) in the NW.

Natural Resources

The country has a limited supply of natural resources. About one-third of the land is arable. Most mineral deposits (of bauxite, gold, silver, copper, nickel, and sulfur) either have not been fully exploited or are no longer commercially viable.

Plants and Animals

Haiti has a tropical flora but has suffered centuries of deforestation. Pine forests occur in the higher mountains. Stands of cedar, mahogany, and oak are found at lower elevations. Among the numerous fruits are guava, orange, grapefruit, mulberry, lime, breadfruit, and mango. No large wild animals or poisonous snakes are native to Haiti, but crocodile and iguana are plentiful. Goose, flamingo, pelican, wild duck, egret, and snipe have their habitats along the shores. Other birds are the hawk, white owl, kingfisher, woodpecker, pigeon, and dove.

POPULATION

About 95% of the people of Haiti are descendants of black African slaves; most of the remainder are mulattoes of French and African descent.

Population Characteristics

The population of Haiti (2003 census) was 8,527,817; the estimate for 2007 was 8,706,497, giving the country an overall population density of about 316 persons per sq km (about 818 per sq mi). About 60% of the population lives in rural areas. Millions of Haitians live abroad, chiefly in the neighboring Dominican Republic, Bahamas, Cuba, Canada (mainly in Québec), France, and the U.S. See also World Almanac: Current Population and Projections for All Countries.

Political Divisions and Principal Cities

Haiti is divided into ten departments, subdivided into arrondissements and communes. The country's capital, Port-au-Prince (pop., 2003 census, 703,023), is the commercial center and major city. Other principal towns are Cap-Haïtien (111,094) and Gonaïves (104,825).

Language and Religion

Under the 1987 constitution, French and Haitian Creole are the official languages. The principal religion is Roman Catholicism, which is professed by about 80% of the population. About 16% are Protestants. Roughly half of the population also practice a form of animism known as voodoo. See also World Almanac: Languages Spoken by at Least 2 Million People.

Education

Education is free and compulsory in Haiti for children between the ages of 6 and 12. In the early 2000s Haiti had some 15,000 primary schools, of which about 90% were non-public. A large proportion of students do not reach 6th grade, and the adult literacy rate is about 53%.

The University of Haiti (1920; formerly called State University), at Port-au-Prince, includes faculties of medicine dentistry, law and economics, and science. Other institutions of higher learning in Haiti include two technical colleges located in Cap-Haïtien and Port-au-Prince; four law schools at Cap-Haïtien, Les Cayes, Gonaïves, and Jérémie; and schools of theology, business. and engineering.

Culture

An indigenous Haitian culture that fuses African, French, and West Indian elements is gaining recognition both inside Haiti--reflecting a general trend toward wider acceptance of and pride in the Creole traditions, language, and religion--and in other countries. A Creole theater has been established where Creole plays and plays translated into Creole are performed. Concerts of indigenous music and dances are held frequently, and exhibitions of Haitian art have been mounted in Haiti and the U.S. Collectors have shown interest in the work of contemporary artists, whose small wood carvings and metalwork figures and paintings of local scenes, with vivid colors and simplified forms, intriguingly mix Christian and voodoo symbolism.

The country has several outstanding libraries. The collections of the Brothers of St. Louis de Gonzague, the National Archives, and the Bibliothèque Nationale contain rare works that date from the colonial period. Also devoted to Haitian history is the National Museum, which is located in Port-au-Prince.

ECONOMY

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. About 80% of the people live below the poverty line and more than half live in abject poverty. Two-thirds of the population depend on agriculture, mainly subsistence farming. Unemployment is widespread and there is a shortage of skilled labor. Political instability, poor governance, and corruption have contributed to the country's problems. Political turmoil has crippled the tourist industry, formerly a major source of revenue. There is a chronic trade deficit. Revenue from remittances accounts for about one- fourth of the gross domestic product (GDP). Neither the country's agriculture nor its foreign exchange earnings are sufficient to meet the country's needs, and malnutrition, has been endemic since the 1970s. Hunger was exacerbated in the early 2000s by shortages caused by rising food prices.

Haiti's poverty worsened during the early 1990s, as the U.S., the United Nations (UN), and the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed sanctions to punish the country's oppressive government. U.S. economic aid resumed in 2004, and U.S. legislation in 2006 provided for tariff-free access to U.S. markets. which it was hoped would boost earnings from exports of garments and automotive parts. An economic program developed in 2005 with the help of the International Monetary Fund helped stimulate economic growth of 3.5% in 2007. The estimated gross domestic product (GDP) for 2007 (based on purchasing power parity calculations) was $15,82 billion, or $1900 per capita. The national budget (2007 est.) included $918.6 million in revenue and $1.036 billion in expenditure.

Labor

The government exercises a strong influence on all of the country's trade unions, whose members make up only a small portion of the working population. In 1962 a new labor code was passed in Haiti declaring the closed shop illegal and providing for compulsory collective bargaining, arbitration, and contracts in those businesses in which two-thirds of the employees were organized. According to 1995 data, the labor force then consisted of some 3.6 million people, of whom 66% were engaged in agriculture, 9% in industry, and 25% in services.

Agriculture

More than half of the total Haitian labor force consists of peasant farmers. The land is overworked and overcrowded, and soil erosion, caused mainly by deforestation, is a major problem. Periodic prolonged droughts and destruction from severe hurricanes, flooding, and mudslides have worsened the situation. Most farms are small family-owned units on which farmers raise their own food and a few other crops for cash sale. Livestock is raised on the small farms to meet local requirements for meat and eggs. In the early 2000s the country's major export crops were cacao, mangoes, and coffee. Other cash crops included citrus fruits, coconuts, tobacco, and cotton. The principal subsistence crops are corn, manioc, sweet potatoes, mangoes, beans, rice, and plantains.

Forestry, Fishing, and Mining

In the early 2000s, more than 95% of the wood cutting was used for fuel. The annual fish catch in Haiti was about 8000 metric tons. Haiti has copper and bauxite resources, but mines have closed down as unprofitable.

Manufacturing

Haitian manufacturing is concentrated in the processing of agricultural products. The country has textile and sisal mills, coffee processing plants, and sugar refineries. Factories produce cement, plastics, paints, metal products, footwear, pharmaceuticals, and soap. Light industrial products (such as electronic equipment) are assembled for reexport. The petite industrie, or handicraft industry, turns out such products as wood carvings and masks.

Energy

Hydroelectric power is provided by several plants, including one on the Artibonite R. inaugurated in 1971 at Péligre, in Centre Dept. In the early 2000s some 540 million kwh of electric power was generated annually, nearly 70% in hydroelectric plants.

Currency, Banking, and Trade

The unit of currency is the gourde (36.2 gourdes equal U.S.$1; Nov. 2008), consisting of 100 centimes. The Banque de la République d'Haiti (est. 1911) is the sole bank of issue and government depository. The principal exports include coffee, light industrial products (including baseballs), cacao, essential oils, sugar, sisal, and handicrafts. Machinery and other manufactured goods, foodstuffs, and mineral fuels are the chief imports. In 2007 exports were valued at $555 million, while imports reached $1.8 billion, The U.S. is the major trading partner. Other trading partners include Dominican Republic and Canada for exports, and the Netherlands Antilles, Brazil, and China for imports.

Transportation

Haiti has a total of about 4160 km (585 mi) of roads, of which some 1011 km (628 mi) are paved; however, few are passable in the rainy season. In 1980 a new road linking Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes was opened. Domestic air service is provided by a government-run airline. In 2001 there were 12 airports in Haiti, with the main international airport (1965) located near Port-au-Prince, and a second one in Cap-Haïtien.

Communications

In the early 2000s Haiti had about 145,000 telephones (main lines) and 500,000 cellular phones. The country had 41 AM radio broadcast stations, 26 FM stations, and 2 TV stations, plus a cable TV service, in the late 1990s. About 650,000 persons had access to Internet as of 2006. Published in Port-au-Prince are three daily newspapers. Major cities and towns of Haiti are connected with one another and with foreign countries by the state-owned telegraph system.

GOVERNMENT

Following the overthrow of the Duvalier regime in 1986, a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in March 1987. This constitution was suspended following a military coup in June 1988. Haiti's first democratically elected president, who was inaugurated in February 1991, was ousted in another military coup in September.

The Constitution was restored in October 1994, and elections for president, parliament, and local offices took place in 1995. A round of legislative and municipal elections in April 1997 was marred by disorganization, irregularities, and very low voter turnout; runoff elections were indefinitely postponed. New parliamentary and presidential elections were held between May and November 2000. Again, between 2004 and 2006, while in force, the constitution was not observed.

Executive

Under the 1987 constitution, executive power is vested in a president, who is directly elected for a 5-year term (may not serve consecutive terms). The president appoints the prime minister, who represents the majority party or coalition in parliament.

Legislature

The 1987 constitution provides for a bicameral parliament. There is a 30-member Senate, elected for 6-year terms, and a 99-seat Chamber of Deputies, elected for 4-year terms. The selection of a cabinet by the president and prime minister must be ratified by the legislature.

Judiciary

The judiciary comprises a court of cassation and lesser courts of appeal, civil courts, and justices of the peace. The president appoints judges and holds the right to pardon.

Local Government

The ten Haitian departments are headed by prefects appointed by the central government. Each department is subdivided into arrondissements and communes. An elected mayor administers each commune.

Health and Welfare

Health conditions and facilities, already poor in Haiti, worsened after the imposition of international sanctions in the early 1990s, and have continued to deteriorate. Life expectancy at birth in 2007 averaged only 57 years; the infant mortality rate was a high 63 deaths per 1000 live births. Government programs offer limited health and social welfare programs for industrial and commercial workers.

Defense

Under the Duvalier regime, the president was the head of a paramilitary civilian militia comprising an active reserve of some 15,000 government partisans. The secret police, known as the Tonton Macoute, was replaced in 1972 by an army battalion called Les Léopards; it was formally disbanded in 1989. The military regime that seized power in 1991 employed a force of about 1500 armed police auxiliaries called attachés to terrorize its opponents. With the restoration of civilian rule in the mid-1990s, the Haitian armed forces were demobilized; U.S. and UN troops maintained order while a national police force was trained.

International Organizations

In addition to its membership in the UN and the OAS, Haiti is also a member of the World Trade Organization and is an African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) state of the European Union. Haiti joined the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) as a full member in 2002, and was readmitted in 2006 after a two-year suspension imposed following the ouster of the country's president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide.

HISTORY

Since the time of its discovery by Christopher Columbus) (Dec.5, 1492) the island on which Haiti is situated has been known as Hispaniola. For the early history of the island, see Dominican Republic.

Division of the Island

Some of the first incidents of particularly Haitian history (as distinct from that of Hispaniola in general) surround the Haitian general Toussaint L'Ouverture, today known as "the Precursor." After the French abolished slavery (1794), he led French republican forces in forcing (1798) a Spanish and British withdrawal, and by 1801 ruled the entire island, which he helped liberated from French control. Toussaint strongly resisted French efforts to reestablish slavery; he was captured (1802) by French forces and later died a prisoner in France.

The island of Hispaniola was declared independent of French colonial rule in 1804 by Gen. Jean Jacques Dessalines. The name was changed to Haiti, and Dessalines assumed the title of emperor. In 1806 Dessalines was assassinated, and for some years thereafter the northern part of Haiti was held by Henri Christophe. In the southern part of the island a republic was established by Alexandre Sabès Pétion. Upon the death of Christophe in 1820, Jean Pierre Boyer, the successor to Pétion, consolidated his power throughout the island. In 1844 the eastern part of the island declared its independence as the Republic of Santo Domingo, now the Dominican Republic.

The subsequent history of Haiti was characterized by a series of bitter internecine struggles for political ascendancy between the blacks and the mulattoes. In 1849 a black, Faustin Élie Soulouque (1785-1867), proclaimed himself emperor as Faustin I, and for ten years ruled Haiti in a despotic manner. In early 1859, the mulatto Nicholas Fabre Geffrard (1806-79) restored republican government to the country; he remained in office until 1867.

U.S. Occupation

Disorder persisted, leading in 1915 to intervention by the U.S. Under U.S. occupation, order was restored, and Philippe Sudre Dartiguenave (1863-after 1922) held the presidency from 1915 to 1922. Early in 1916 the U.S. Senate ratified a treaty with Haiti by which the U.S., for a period of ten years, agreed to give economic and political aid to help put the Haitian government on a firm footing.

An insurrection against U.S. authority was put down in 1920. The assistance treaty, upon its expiration, was extended for another decade. Despite widespread improvements achieved under U.S. occupation, Haitian hostility to outside interference manifested itself in periodic uprisings. The 19-year U.S. military occupation of Haiti was terminated on Aug. 15, 1934, when U.S. Marines were finally withdrawn. During the next three years, Haiti experienced the economic repercussions of the worldwide depression.

Continued U.S. Influence

In 1939 President Stenio J. Vincent (1874-1959), who had first been elected in 1930, took steps to remain in office beyond the end of his second term and to augment his semidictatorial powers. Confronted with strong local opposition and U.S. disapproval, he announced that he would not seek reelection. The Haitian legislature then elected former minister to the U.S. Élie Lescot (1883-1974) to the presidency. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Lescot, with the unanimous approval of the legislature, declared war on Japan on December 8 and on Germany and Italy on December 12. Early in 1942 Haiti permitted U.S. antisubmarine aircraft to use the Port-au-Prince landing field. In 1943 the Haitian-American Agricultural Development Corporation (SHADA) made progress in cultivating sisal, lemon grass, the cacao plant, and the rubber-yielding Cryptostegia vine. On April 20, 1944, President Lescot's term of office was extended by the Haitian legislature for seven years.

Haiti signed the charter of the UN on June 26, 1945, becoming one of the original 51 members. Growing political disturbances in Haiti led, on Jan. 11, 1946, to the military ouster of Lescot, who fled to Miami, Fla. On August 16 Dumarsais Estimé (1900-53) was elected president.

Haiti signed the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (see Rio Treaty) in September 1947 and the charter of the Organization of American States (OAS) in April 1948. During 1949 Haitian revolutionaries, with encouragement from the Dominican government, precipitated a domestic crisis and provoked Estimé to declare a state of siege on November 15. In May 1950 the Haitian president was forced to resign, and a military junta ruled the country until elections were held October 8. Paul Magloire (1907-2001), a soldier and member of the junta, won the presidency by a large majority. His government encouraged foreign investment and settled differences with the Dominican Republic. In 1956 controversy developed over the extent of his term of office, and in December of that year he gave up all power. Political uncertainty followed until September 1957, when François ("Papa Doc") Duvalier, who had been a member of the Estimé government, was elected president.

The Duvalier Regime

Fear of political rivals led Duvalier to declare several of them outlaws. At his bidding, the legislature imposed a state of siege on May 2, 1958, and on July 31 authorized him to rule by decree. In this period he organized the Tonton Macoute, an armed force under his control, to intimidate opposition. He dissolved the bicameral legislature on April 8, 1961, to form a new unicameral legislature. All candidates for the new body elected April 30 were his followers. On September 15 the legislature granted him extensive economic powers. U.S. aid was suspended in 1961 to show disapproval of Duvalier's policies.

On April 19, 1963, a military plot against Duvalier was uncovered and crushed. Haitian police invaded the Dominican embassy to seize government foes but withdrew when Dominican President Juan Domingo Bosch threatened to use armed force against them. The refusal of the Haitian government to permit the embassy refugees to leave the country safely led to a buildup of Dominican troops on the Haitian border. The troops withdrew on May 13, but Haitian exiles in the Dominican Republic made several unsuccessful invasions of Haiti in August in the hope of triggering a popular uprising. A severe hurricane on October 4, followed by a landslide on November 10, caused about 5500 deaths and much property damage.

A life term as president for Duvalier and a new red-and-black flag (to symbolize the link between Haiti and Africa) were authorized by a new constitution proclaimed in 1964. Rebel groups within the country remained active, despite the oppressive tyranny of Duvalier and the Tonton Macoute. By 1967 the president had executed some 2000 political enemies and driven others into exile.

In January 1971, the legislature amended the constitution to permit Duvalier to name his son, Jean Claude Duvalier (1951-    ), as his successor. The 19-year-old Duvalier became president after the death of his father on April 21, 1971. Advisers loyal to Papa Doc's regime held on to important positions, and his mother exercised considerable influence. An exodus to the Bahamas and to Florida during the late 1970s and early'80s, a result of political oppression and deepening poverty, drew international attention to the Duvalier regime. (Pope John Paul II visited Haiti in 1983 pleading for change in behalf of the poor.) Rising opposition in 1985 led Duvalier to flee Haiti to France in early 1986. After a transition, Leslie Manigat (1930-    ) was elected president in January 1988. He was ousted by the military a few months later, and Lt. Gen. Prosper Avril (1938-    ) emerged from a power struggle to become president.

New Turmoil

Renewed political unrest, sparked by deteriorating economic conditions, led Avril to resign the presidency and flee Haiti in March 1990. Internationally supervised elections in December resulted in a landslide presidential victory for Jean-Bertrand Aristide (1953-    ), a former Roman Catholic priest and an outspoken advocate for the poor. After the army crushed a mutiny led by former officials of the Duvalier regime, Aristide was inaugurated in February 1991. He was ousted by a military junta in September and went into exile in the U.S.

The Organization of American States imposed sanctions on the oppressive new regime, but negotiations for Aristide's return to office dragged on. Thousands of Haitians tried to flee to the U.S., but most were turned back. In June 1993, the UN imposed sanctions, which were suspended in July when the Haitian military and Aristide agreed on a plan for his return to office. After many political assassinations and incidents of mob violence in Port-au-Prince, the sanctions were reimposed, and the UN, in July 1994, authorized an invasion by a multinational force. With U.S. troops already en route, coup leaders and U.S. negotiators, led by former President Jimmy Carter reached an agreement (September 1994) requiring the coup leaders to give up power and allowing U.S. troops to enter the country unopposed. Sanctions were lifted, the leaders of the junta went into exile, and President Aristide returned to Haiti and was restored to office. With U.S. President Bill Clinton in attendance, peacekeeping authority in Haiti was transferred to a UN command in March 1995.

In May 1996, René Préval (1943-    ), who had won a presidential election two months earlier, was sworn in as Haiti's president. As UN troops began to pull out, Préval faced the challenge of maintaining order and rebuilding his country's shattered economy. After Haiti's parliament passed an economic reform plan in September, aid pledges by international development banks and other donors exceeded $2 billion. Much of that funding was delayed, however, because of the inability of rival political groups to form a stable government. By the end of 1997 the UN military mission had been withdrawn, but about 500 U.S. troops remained. When the last of these troops departed in January 2000, the Haitian economy was still in shambles, police violence was on the rise, and, in the absence of a functioning legislature, Préval was essentially governing by decree.

Aristide won a 92 percent majority in November 2000 elections that were boycotted by the opposition; he took office in February 2001. Removed in February 2004, after months-long popular demonstrations and international pressure, he went into exile and an interim president assumed authority. A U.S.-led contingent, sent in after the upheaval, yielded authority in June to a United Nations stabilization force (MINUSTAH). Flooding in May killed more than 1000 people, and more than 2000 were killed the following month in Tropical Storm Jeanne.

Recent Developments

In May 2006, former President Préval, the declared winner of controversial elections held in February, was sworn in as Haiti's president. Despite the continued presence of a 9000-member UN peacekeeping force (MINUSTAH), led by Brazil, violence continued in major cities.

Increases in food prices had an enormous impact on Haiti, where more than half of the population live on about $1 a day. By April 2008 the price of rice (an imported item like most of the country's food since 1987) had doubled in a few months, leading to anti-government riots. There was violence, looting, and property destruction in major cities, including the capital Port-au-Prince, and demonstrators clashed with the UN peacekeepers; one UN peacekeeper was killed and five other deaths were reported. In response, President Préval announced measures to reduce the price of rice, and the Senate voted to remove the incumbent prime minister, Jacques Édouard Alexis (1947-    ). After a four-month stalemate, legislators approved Michelle Pierre-Louis (1947-    ) as his successor.

The impoverished nation suffered further losses in the Atlantic hurricane season of 2008. As many as 800 or more people died as a result of successive storms (Fay, Gustav, Hanna, and Ike) in August and September. Many towns were flooded, roads and bridges were washed away, and up to a million Haitians were left homeless.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, sections Witchcraft, Haiti.