Dominican Republic

PRINTEMAILSAVETEXT

(Sp. República Dominicana), republic, West Indies, comprising the E two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola. The country is bounded on the N by the Atlantic Ocean; on the E by the Mona Passage, which separates it from Puerto Rico; on the S by the Caribbean Sea; and on the W by Haiti. The Dominican Republic has an extreme length in an E to W direction of about 380 km (about 235 mi) and a maximum width, in the W, of about 265 km (about 165 mi). The frontier with Haiti is some 315 km (some 195 mi) long. The area is 48,442 sq km (18,704 sq mi). A number of adjacent islands, among them Beata and Saona, are possessions of the Dominican Republic. See also World Almanac: Nations of the World - Dominican Republic.

LAND AND RESOURCES

The Dominican Republic is a fertile, well-watered, mountainous country. About 80% of the country is covered with a series of massive mountain ranges, extending in a NW to SE direction. Pico Duarte (3087 m/10,128 ft) is the highest mountain in the country and in the West Indies. Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Septentrional, a parallel range to the N, is the Valley of Cibao, one of the most fertile and best-watered areas of the country. The coastal plain in the SE is another fertile region. Among the numerous streams of the Dominican Republic are the Yaque del Norte and Yuna rivers in the N and the Yaque del Sur R. in the S.

The country's principal lake is the saltwater Lago Enriquillo; it has a length of about 43 km (about 27 mi) and it is situated in the SW. The coastline of the Dominican Republic, about 1633 km (about 1015 mi) in length, is irregular and indented by many bays, which form natural harbors, notably Calderas Bay in the S and the Bay of Samaná in the NE.

Climate

The Dominican Republic has a semitropical climate, tempered by the prevailing easterly winds. Temperatures of more than 23.3° C (more than 74° F) are registered in the lowlands throughout the year. During the summer months temperatures range between 26.7° and 35° C (80° and 95° F) in these regions. The highlands are considerably cooler. Annual precipitation averages about 1525 mm (about 60 in), but considerably more moisture is received in the mountainous areas of the N. The wet season is from June to November. Tropical hurricanes hit the Dominican Republic occasionally; and two major storms, Hurricane David (1979) and Hurricane Georges (1998), caused great damage.

Natural Resources

The main resources of the Dominican Republic are agricultural. The fertile soil in the valleys is conducive to farming, and many of the mountain slopes are covered with forests. The country also has valuable deposits of nickel, bauxite, gold, and silver.

Plants and Animals

The vegetation of the Dominican Republic, like that of the other islands of the West Indies, is extremely varied and luxuriant. Among the species of indigenous trees are mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, cypress, pine, oak, and cacao. Many species of useful plants and fruits are common, including rice, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, yam, banana, pineapple, mango, fig, grape, and breadfruit.

The most noteworthy mammal among the indigenous animals is the agouti, a species of rodent. Wild dogs, hogs, and cattle are abundant, as are numerous reptiles, notably snakes, lizards, and caimans. Waterfowl and pigeons are common birds.

POPULATION

Most of the population of the Dominican Republic is of mixed Spanish and black-African descent. The society is about two-thirds urban.

Population Characteristics

The estimated population in 2007 was 9,365,818, giving the country an overall population density of about 194 persons per sq km (about 500 per sq mi). The population was increasing by approximately 1.5% annually in the early 2000s. According to unofficial estimates, up to 1 million Haitians live illegally in the Dominican Republic. See also World Almanac: Current Population and Projections for All Countries.

Political Divisions and Principal Cities

The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces plus the Distrito Nacional (National District), which encompasses Santo Domingo, the capital. The provinces are subdivided into municipalities and townships.

Santo Domingo, also the country's leading port, has a population (urban agglomeration, est. 2006) of about 2,253,000. Other important cities include Santiago (in full, Santiago de los Caballeros; pop. about 750,000, 2006 est.), a trade and transportation center; San Francisco de Macorí, an agricultural trade center; and La Romana, a seaport and tourist center.

Language and Religion

Spanish is the official language of the Dominican Republic. English is also spoken, and a French dialect is heard along the Haitian frontier. About 95% of the population profess Roman Catholicism. There is a small Protestant community, and perhaps 1% of the people are Spiritists. See also World Almanac: Languages Spoken by at Least 2 Million People.

Education

Free, compulsory education is provided in the Dominican Republic to children between the ages of 7 and 14. About 87% of the population aged 15 or more years is literate.

The Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (1538), the oldest in the western hemisphere, and Pedro Henríquez Ureña National University (1966) are in Santo Domingo. Other universities are in Santiago, San Pedro de Macorís, and San Francisco de Macorís; there are also technical colleges and schools of art and music.

Culture

The first permanent New World colony of Europeans was established in the Dominican Republic, where Western traditions have thrived ever since. Some of the old colonial buildings are still standing, fine examples of which are in Santo Domingo. Art, music, and literature are partly developed on Western patterns. Almost equally strong is the African cultural strain. In the folk culture, especially the music, the African heritage is most noticeable. These two traditions blend in the popular national song and dance, the merengue. Most of the country's major cultural institutions, including university libraries, the National Library (1971), the National Fine Arts Gallery (1943), the Museum of Dominican Man (formerly the National Museum; 1973), and the Museum of Modern Art (1976) are in Santo Domingo. Columbus Palace (1510)--the residence of Diego Columbus (in Spanish Diego Colón; c. 1480-1526), son of Christopher Columbus and viceroy of the island (1511-26)--was made into a museum in 1957; it houses the most important collection of tapestries in the Caribbean.

ECONOMY

Although not nearly as poor as Haiti, the Dominican Republic was burdened in the early 2000s with a public debt amounting to more than 40% of gross domestic product and an unemployment rate close to 20%. The annual gross domestic product was about $8500 per capita. During most of the early 2000s the country enjoyed strong economic growth, in part because of private sector participation. But income distribution was highly uneven, and approximately 40% of the population remained poor. Agriculture is central to the economy, but trade and tourism are the nation's largest employers. A Central American-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement was ratified in 2005. Remittances from the increasing numbers of Dominicans living in the U.S. was a major source of hard currency. The government budget in 2006 included an estimated $5.7 billion in revenues and $6.1 billion in expenditures. World Almanac: U.S. Direct Investment Abroad in Selected Countries and Territories.

Labor

The labor force of the Dominican Republic in 2006 was close to 4 million workers. About 60% of Dominican workers are engaged in services and government, around 25% in industry, and some 15% in agriculture. Most workers are not unionized.

Agriculture

The principal cash crops of the Dominican Republic are raised on large plantations. Most farmers, however, engage in subsistence cultivation. Sugarcane is the main cash crop; the largest plantations are in the SE. Other crops include coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas, plantains, and tomatoes. Cattle, hogs, and poultry are raised primarily for local consumption.

Forestry and Fishing

About one-third of the total land area is forested. The government fosters conservation and has regulated the forest industry since the early 1960s. The main woods cut are mahogany, satinwood, pine, and cedar. The fishing industry is underdeveloped, mainly because of a lack of deep-sea fishing equipment and refrigeration facilities. The catch, which includes mackerel, tuna, bonito, and snapper, totaled about 12,000 metric tons in 2005.

Mining

Production of bauxite, formerly the Dominican Republic's dominant mineral export, virtually ended in the early 1980s. Mineral products in the early 2000s included ferronickel, gold, and silver.

Manufacturing

Sugar refining is a leading industrial activity in the Dominican Republic. Also produced are alcoholic beverages, molasses, cement, tobacco products, and processed wheat and rice.

Energy

More than 80% of the Dominican Republic's electricity is produced in thermal plants. In 2005 electricity production amounted to 12.2 billion kwh.

Currency and Banking

The unit of currency in the Dominican Republic is the peso (34 pesos equal U.S.$1; May 2008). The Central Bank of the Dominican Republic is the sole bank of issue.

Foreign Trade

The principal exports of the Dominican Republic typically include ferronickel, sugar, gold, coffee, and cocoa. Sugar and sugar products usually make up 20% or more of all export earnings. Petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, transport equipment, foodstuffs, and chemicals are leading imports. In 2006 the total value of exports was about $6.4 billion, and of imports about $11.2 billion. The U.S. is by far the leading trade partner of the Dominican Republic; others include Venezuela, Colombia, Mexico, Great Britain, and Belgium. Goods are also smuggled across the Haitian border.

Transportation

The road system of the Dominican Republic totals about 12,600 km (about 7800 mi), of which around 50% is paved. Most of the railroad in use is privately owned and serves the sugar plantations. Aside from the Santo Domingo port, other large ports are located at Puerto Plata in the N and Barahona in the SW. The country is served by several international and domestic airlines.

Communications

The Dominican Republic has more than 150 commercial radio stations and about 25 television broadcast stations. There are more than 1.2 million Internet users. El Caribe and Listín Diario, both issued in Santo Domingo, are influential newspapers.

GOVERNMENT

The Dominican Republic is governed under a constitution promulgated in 1966.

Central Government

Executive power is vested in a president, who is popularly elected for a 4-year term. The president appoints a cabinet and may also introduce bills in congress.

Legislature

The bicameral congress of the Dominican Republic is composed of an upper chamber (Senado), which has 30 members, and a lower chamber (Cámara de Diputados), with 149 deputies. All legislative members are popularly elected for terms of four years.

Judiciary

The highest tribunal in the Dominican Republic is the Supreme Court of Justice, made up of a president and eight judges, all of whom are appointed by the Senado, and a procurator-general, appointed by the president. Lesser courts include courts of first instance and courts of appeal.

Local Government

The 31 provinces of the Dominican Republic are administered by governors, who are appointed by the country's president. Each municipality and the Distrito Nacional elect a mayor and a municipal council.

Political Parties

The Dominican party was the only legal party between 1930 and 1961, when it was dissolved and new parties were established. The principal parties in the early 2000s were the Dominican Liberation party (Partido de la Liberación Dominicana; PLD), the Dominican Revolutionary party (Partido Revolucionario Dominicano; PRD), and the Social Christian Reform party (Partido Reformista Social Cristiano; PRSC). The PRSC draws support from the peasant and middle classes, whereas the PRD is composed largely of landless peasants and urban workers. The PLD is an offshoot of the PRD.

Health and Welfare

In the 1960s the government of the Dominican Republic inaugurated a program aimed at raising health standards. Drainage systems, garbage disposal plants, and aqueducts were built in all of the larger cities. The country's health standards have shown some improvement. Average life expectancy at birth (est. 2007) was 75 years for women and 71 for men, and the infant mortality rate was 28 per 1000 live births. Large numbers of people are not covered under the nation's voluntary social insurance system.

Defense

The armed forces of the Dominican Republic comprise about 25,000 active troops. Military service is voluntary.

International Organizations

The Dominican Republic is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization of American States, and the World Trade Organization, and is an African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) state of the European Union.

HISTORY

The aboriginal inhabitants of Hispaniola were Arawak Indians, engaged mainly in farming and fishing. They eventually became extinct as a result of exploitation by Spanish colonists. Black slaves were later imported to take the place of the Indian laborers. In 1697, by the Peace of Ryswick, the portion of Hispaniola that had been occupied by French adventurers was formally ceded to France and became known as Saint-Domingue, which is now Haiti. The remaining Spanish section, what is now the Dominican Republic, was called Santo Domingo.

Shifting Sovereignties

The French in their part developed a flourishing plantation economy and a lively trade, while the Spanish area, bypassed by commerce and shown little interest by the administrative authorities, declined; many people left, and much of the land remained unpopulated. Spain finally ceded Santo Domingo to France in 1795. During the years that followed, the country was caught up in the convulsions of neighboring nascent Haiti, fought over by the French, Spanish, and English, as well as indigenous mulattoes and blacks. When Haiti ousted the French in 1804, Santo Domingo remained under French occupation for another five years. Then the French were expelled and nominal Spanish rule restored. After 1814, however, the Spanish administration became increasingly tyrannical, and in 1821 the Dominicans rose in revolt, proclaiming their independence. It was short-lived. The following year Haitian President Jean Pierre Boyer led his troops into the country and annexed it to Haiti, thus bringing the entire island under his control. Boyer ruled until overthrown by revolution in 1843. A year later Santo Domingo again declared its independence, forming the Dominican Republic.

A Period of Strife

The first president was Pedro Santana, who served for three terms between 1844 and 1861. Both his administrations and the subsequent ones were characterized by popular unrest and frequent boundary disputes with Haiti. The internal strife was most clearly discernible in the two political groups that took root within the republic: One faction advocated return to Spanish rule and the other, annexation to the U.S. For a brief period, from 1861 to 1863, the country, led by former President Santana, did return to Spanish rule, but a popular revolt in 1863-64 and subsequent military reverses and U.S. intervention forced the Spanish government to withdraw its forces and to annul the annexation. The second Dominican Republic was proclaimed in February 1865. Political turmoil continued, however, throughout the remainder of the 19th century.

Because of Dominican indebtedness to a number of European nations, some of which threatened intervention, the Dominican government signed a 50-year treaty with the U.S. in 1906, turning over to the U.S. the administration and control of its customs department. In exchange the U.S. undertook to adjust the foreign financial obligations of the Dominican government. Internal disorders during the ensuing decade finally culminated in the establishment of a military government by the U.S. Marines, who occupied the country on Nov. 29, 1916. Control of the country was, however, gradually restored to the people, and by March 1924 a constitutional government had assumed control. Later that year the American occupation ended.

The Trujillo Era

The outstanding political development of the subsequent period was the dictatorship established by Gen. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina. Elected to the presidency in 1930, Trujillo forcibly eliminated all opposition, thereby acquiring absolute control of the nation. For the next 31 years, although he personally occupied the presidency only half that time (1930-38 and 1943-52), Trujillo presided over one of the tightest dictatorships in the world. With the military as the basis of his power, he and his family directed practically every aspect of the nation's life, from the courts down to the pettiest bureaucrat. The national economy, while greatly expanded and modernized, was run as the dictator's personal corporation, and the political process was completely dominated by his Dominican party. Backed at first by the U.S., Trujillo used this support to his own advantage in shoring up his power. Discontent and criticism, widespread especially after World War II, were met with terror and self-serving propaganda.

During Trujillo's rise to power, however, considerable material progress was made. Many new hospitals and housing projects were finished, a pension plan was established, and public health facilities, harbors, and roads were improved. A boundary dispute with neighboring Haiti, going back to 1844, was settled in 1935, and in 1941 the U.S. government terminated the administration of the Dominican customs. In December of that year, shortly after the U.S. entered World War II, the Dominican Republic also declared war on Japan, Germany, and Italy. It subsequently became a charter member of the UN. In 1948 the country also became a charter member of the Organization of American States (OAS), which in subsequent years frequently condemned the Trujillo regime both for interference in the internal affairs of neighboring countries and "flagrant and widespread violations of human rights." OAS criticism culminated in 1960 in a resolution calling for severance of diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic; the U.S. did so shortly afterward. These external pressures were coupled with growing internal resistance to the regime. The Trujillo era ended with the dictator's assassination on May 26, 1961.

Democracy Restored--and Toppled

After the assassination, agitation mounted against the continued political dominance of the Trujillo family. Numerous exiles began to return home and political parties were reestablished. In October 1961 the two brothers of the late dictator left the country, but they returned in November, apparently with the intention of seizing governmental power. President Joaquín Balaguer, who had assumed the office as a Trujillo puppet in 1960, reacted to the threat by assuming control of the armed forces. To demonstrate support of Balaguer, the U.S. stationed warships and planes off the Dominican coast. The show of force speedily induced all members of the Trujillo family to leave the country. Opposition groups, however, rallied against Balaguer; after a wave of strikes and demonstrations, he and his opponents agreed on a plan under which he would retain the presidency until sanctions, imposed by the OAS since 1960, were lifted. The sanctions were revoked in January 1962, and shortly afterward Rafael Banally (1904-79), an opponent of Balaguer, was designated president to serve until elections were held.

In December 1962 the Dominican Republic held its first free election in nearly four decades. Juan Bosch, a returned exile, won by a wide margin and was inaugurated on Feb. 27, 1963. Almost immediately, opposition to his regime began to develop. Bosch was criticized as being too tolerant of pro-Castro and Communist groups, and the business community felt threatened by changes in the country's economic policy. On September 25 Bosch was deposed by a military coup and the leaders installed a three-man civilian junta. To indicate disapproval of the coup, the U.S. withheld recognition until the new regime promised to hold elections by 1965.

The U.S. Intervenes

Throughout 1964 restlessness within the country was manifested by strikes and sabotage and conflicts within the junta. On April 24, 1965, a group within the army rebelled against the government with the avowed purpose of restoring Bosch as president. Air force and navy elements opposed the insurgents, and Santo Domingo became the battleground of a civil war. Four days later, a contingent of U.S. Marines was landed in Santo Domingo to protect U.S. interests. The U.S. forces took up positions in a so-called international zone, which served as a barrier between the rebel-occupied area of the city and the sections occupied by the junta loyalists. From his exile in Puerto Rico, Bosch accused rightists of provoking intervention by the U.S., which, he said, had prevented a rebel victory. He denied charges by the U.S. of Communist takeover of the rebel cause. In early May the OAS arranged a cease-fire and established an inter-American military force for peacekeeping duties. The OAS forces began arriving in mid-May, and in June U.S. Marines were withdrawn from the country; 12,500 other U.S. troops, however, remained.

During the summer the OAS tried to arrange a settlement between the loyalists and the rebels (who called themselves "constitutionalists" to indicate their desire to restore the constitutionally elected government of Bosch). At the end of August the two factions agreed to establish a provisional government, and a few days later Hector García-Godoy (1921-70), former foreign minister under Bosch, assumed the presidency.

The Balaguer Era

Bosch, Balaguer, and Bonnelly all announced their candidacies in the presidential election scheduled for June 1966. In the election, Balaguer, a conservative, won with 56 percent of the vote. His administration, although not completely democratic, restored relative stability to the country. The economy showed strength, aided by high sugar prices, foreign investment, and increased tourism, enabling Balaguer to win reelection easily in 1970 and 1974. The PRD, led by Bosch, boycotted both elections, charging restrictions on its campaign activities.

Shifting Power to the PRD

In the mid-1970s a sharp decline in world sugar prices adversely affected the Dominican economy, and Balaguer's support began to dwindle; in the 1978 elections he was turned out of office, defeated by the PRD candidate, Silvestre Antonio Guzmán (1911-82). After foiling a plot by right-wing military men to prevent him from taking office, Guzmán purged the armed forces of many Balaguer supporters, released some 200 political prisoners of the previous regime, and eased press censorship. The economy remained troubled by low sugar prices and was further damaged by two hurricanes in 1979 that left more than 200,000 people homeless and caused $1 billion in damages.

Guzmán chose not to run again in 1982. He died in July of that year, an apparent suicide, shortly after Senator Salvador Jorge Blanco (1926-    ) was elected to succeed him. To rescue the country from its economic crisis, Jorge Blanco turned to the International Monetary Fund, which demanded austerity measures in exchange for a 3-year loan package. These measures, including price increases for basic foods and gasoline, led to protest riots in 1984 and 1985.

Balaguer and Beyond

Balaguer was returned as president in 1986. In 1988, Jorge Blanco was tried in absentia and found guilty of corruption during his presidential years. Balaguer defeated Bosch in the 1990 election, but it was denounced by many as fraudulent. Protests were so intense after the 1994 election, again won by Balaguer, that the elderly president agreed to serve only a two-year term. U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández Reyna (1953-    ) of the PLD finished second in the initial round of presidential voting in May 1996, but with Balaguer's support won the June runoff. His administration promoted privatization and improved relations with other countries, but was criticized for failing to make inroads in reducing poverty.

Hurricane Georges, which slammed into the southwestern part of the country in September 1998, killed more than 200 people and caused extensive damage. Flooding and mudslides in May 2004 killed close to 400.

PRD candidate Hipólito Mejía (1941-    ), a populist businessman and former agriculture secretary, emerged as winner of the 2000 presidential election. His administration encountered serious economic problems, and he was defeated for reelection in 2004 by former president Fernández of the PLD. Fernández introduced austerity measures that helped stabilize the economy and tame inflation, though unemployment and poverty remained serious problems. He became known for building an expensive modern subway in Santo Domingo, which he promoted as a major step in modernizing the capital city and boosting its economic health. He was reelected in May 2008, winning 54 percent of the vote to easily defeat his main rival, on the center left.

For further information on this topic, see the Bibliography, section Dominican Republic.